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The most representative point has the imaging conditions. Obviously this scan feature saves been labeled. Scanning C. Jumping mode One of the drawbacks of SPM is the scanning speed. First, the scanning ramps are WSXM. JM was developed as a midpoint between classical rounded at the turning point to avoid high frequencies as contact mode and dynamic mode.
While the physics of JM much as possible. This feature is implemented as follows: have been thoroughly described elsewhere;10 the basic algo- assuming that we are not using the nonlinear piezocorrection, rithm for JM has not been published.
JM, with a working the voltages applied to the X-Y piezoelectrics are linear principle very similar to pulsed force microscopy,19 was ramps with opposite slopes for the forward and backward originally designed as a scanning mode to minimize shear ways.
Therefore there is a discontinuity on the derivative forces. The difference between pulsed force microscopy and at the turning point. This discontinuity is avoided by smooth- JM is that the first is implemented electronically whereas JM ing this peak with a simple algorithm in the DSP that keeps is just a software method running in the digital signal pro- the first derivative continuous. In our discrete and cyclic cessor memory. JM mode operation can be described as a system we have implemented an iterative algorithm to round cycle repeated at each image point with the following steps: the scan, using constant acceleration.
The data are back, which is generally performed on the cantilever deflec- only represented on the constant slope periods to avoid im- tion. This method is particularly valuable in liquids20 where age distorsions. The key point to obtain good quality topography im- in Fig. Figure 4 shows simple, robust, and reliable; however, it does not measure an an arbitrary topography line scan that is related with the volt- absolute value for the zero force level that is adjusted, when age applied to the scanner by the labels.
Consequently the force used as a set placement of the sample is reached. Then, the highest zmax of point to acquire topographic images in contact mode may the line scan is calculated in the DSP, the feedback loop is arbitrarily change with time. The with time. A recover when the tip-sample distance is maximum and recalculate Downloaded 02 Oct to Most of the basic instructions can be easily drawn using the design window and automatically translated to source code by the code autogeneration system.
This is a structured lan- guage with forced, declared, and typed variable support, al- lowing conditionals, loops, and blocks as the main flow control instructions, which provides a powerful interface to control the microscope. We have included optional arguments to increase the flexibility and allow the same instruction to be simple but accurate if required.
In this way we obtain the compiling efficiency of a desktop computer and the low response time of a DSP. Of course longer pulses can also be pro- gramed. The general idea of the lithography module is to be pow- erful enough to provide low level access and let the user implement the algorithms, avoiding internal extra checking FIG. Schematic of the lithography section of WSXM.
Some of the the set point to correct the zero force level fluctuations. In addition some complex pro- options: set point is not recalculated, it is recalculated exclu- cesses need to be done, such as acquiring curves that need an sively at one single point at the end of each scanning line or output to be modified while input data are taken or acquiring it is recalculated at each point of the image.
In liquids the some input channels while the tip is moving over the sample. This is per- lateral force, amplitude, etc. The adhesion is sualization is very useful while trying to move atoms as the measured as the minimum value of this vector.
We have referred several times to draw something in the D. Nanolithography surface. This drawing can be performed in several ways de- The control of the tip motion by the user is a clear goal pending on the particular experiment and most of the times it for any SPM software. We have implemented this feature in consists on moving the tip over the sample with some spe- WSXM through the combination of a computer-aided design cific configuration different from the scanning one.
From set point, higher bias voltage, or constant height motions are the point of view of the end user, the working basis of this only some of the options widely used. To facilitate the task lithography mode is quite simple: using the CAD interface, we have added what we call start drawing configuration and the user draws a pattern that the tip must follow.
In addition finish drawing configuration, which are two sets of actions to to the drawing instructions, different parameters such as bias be performed before starting drawing and finishing drawing. The drawings performed in the CAD window gen- source code, compiled in the PC main processor, and run in erate code that can be seen and modified in the code window.
This code can be simulated before running it to avoid some Another important issue is to be easily hardware inter- logical errors. Finally, the user opens a data acquisition ses- acted. Mixing this feature with other tives, allowing more and more capabilities for controlling the developments such as the external scan control we can turn system. The user Downloaded 02 Oct to The slave operating mode can mean deactivate some of the WSXM control rou- tines and goes from turning off the feedback loop to let every low-level signal controlled by the user, if the appropriate hardware is used.
In this case we can solve the lacks of other systems. The main functions of this preprocessor are removing the comments, tokenizing the source code, replacing the constant values, Figure 7 illustrates the capabilities of WSXM lithography. The generated con substrate. This voltage, together with the thin water layer symbols table stores information about the variables used in that is commonly adsorbed on surfaces at air ambient the program, not only the value in execution time but also conditions,21 produces local oxidation22 resulting on the some control flags.
In this way the motion have been set using the above described lithography order of the arguments is free and it is easier to add optional features. The compiler itself uses the tokenized code and the E. Perspectives symbols table and generates some instructions trees.
In these final lines struction in each node. The radix of the trees will be the we will describe two important tendencies in our software. On the arguments, including a flag for optional arguments to know if contrary, they are a complicated convolution of the tip and the argument was present. Optional arguments are not as- sample density of states.
The user can choose between running the whole pro- The very last developments in WSXM are related with gram, only a single instruction or a complete block, and noncontact AFM. By combining new dynamic mode with the pause it while it is running. In the DSP side there is an lithography capability WSXM allows us to move atoms at interpreter that loads the compiled and serialized code and room temperature in an ultrahigh vacuum environment.
A complete communication protocol is in charge of WSXM is now used by thousands of persons related with the proper synchronization between PC and DSP and be- science and technology. In the forthcoming years we will tween the internal routines and the user interface. The user keep working on improving the capabilities of the software can stay in front of the computer and the drawn instructions helping people to get the best possible results in their works.
In all the process the compiled code The authors are certainly indebted to all the WSXM de- is hidden so there is no need to deal with objects or execut- velopers that have worked in this project since and the able files. The user only has to worry about source code, many WSXM users around the world; in particular, the au- saving and loading both main program and drawing configu- thors would like to thank the New Microscopy Laboratory rations if desired.
Press and W. Thomas, Numerical Recipes in C. Salvarezza, J.
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